Eirini Kapogianni
Emerging from lethe. Divers in ancient literature and their role in our understanding
Human curiosity has long been drawn to the bountiful underwater world, with its roots deep into antiquity, as evidenced by archaeological and historical records. This research delves particularly into diving, as depicted in the ancient Greek and Latin texts, with the aim of shedding light on this captivating aspect of ancient literature.
Ancient sources abound with references to the underwater environment and marine life, the risks and rewards of the sea, the challenges faced by divers, and the methods they employed to overcome them. The ancient writers, rather than plunging into the depths themselves, meticulously documented the experience of those who did. Thus, divers become from fishers and submarine militants, salvages, and underwater workers, to conveyors of an unexplored realm.
Within the intricate web of ancient sources, a rich tapestry of terminology surrounds these intrepid divers. This paper has a dual purpose: to consolidate the diverse lexicon and to uncover the nuanced meanings of each term. Moreover, it aims to explore the divers’ contribution to the understanding of the underwater world, which was primarily accessible to a few.
Dr Maria M. Michael
Freediving as a fishing method in the archaeological context of Cyprus
Although humans have been engaging in underwater spaces since prehistory, the study of freediving as a fishing method has been a neglected subject in archaeological studies. Fishers may have experienced diving more often than researchers believe because of the lack of evidence. Consequently, the main aim of this paper is to recognise, identify, and consider the evidence for this ancient activity and put them into the right context in order to approach the topic of underwater engagement in the Cypriot archaeological context.
Cyprus has a tradition of cultural interactions and maritime connections within the region of the eastern Mediterranean, but no one has attempted to examine the engagement of its inhabitants with freediving as a fishing method; as a result, the current paper aims to shed light on this engagement in Cyprus through time, from the Neolithic to Roman (tenth millennium BC– 330 AD). In other words, it attempts to explore whether Cypriots engaged or not engaged with freediving in the past. Also, it attempts to examine how the ancient physical Mediterranean and Cypriot environment and its ecology determined the presence or absence of freediving as a fishing method in the maritime landscape. This will demonstrate the relationship between fishers and their maritime environment.
In order to achieve this aim, archaeological data relating to this activity and fishbone assemblages in conjunction with appropriate environmental, biological, and ethnographic data have been collected from published material, museum inventories, and archives. Through their systematic examination, the recovery of the remains of fish species caught by freediving, the occurrence of external auditory exostoses (EAEs) in skeletal remains, and the recovery of fishing gear that may have been used for buoyancy control of free divers suggest the engagement with freediving in the Cypriot archaeological context. In this paper, some of these case studies are discussed.
Tomasz Michalik
Vision[s] of the past. Short introduction to eye-tracking as a tool for research on perception of underwater heritage
In their famous book “Inattentional blindness”, Arien Mack and Irvin Rock claimed that even if something is completely visible, we may fail to notice that, if it is unexpected. However, “looking without seeing”, a phenomenon described by Mack and Rock, is only the tip of the iceberg. Other attentional biases, challenging both everyday life and scientific work, may result from a lack of knowledge, one’s experience or susceptibility to visual distractors.
Understanding perceptual limitations is particularly important in archeology, where modern perception meets artefacts from the past. Awareness of perceptual processes is the key to conducting more reliable archeological research. Eye-tracking technology can be particularly useful in improving research, making it possible to study visual attention through the analysis of eye movements.
Considering that archeology is a highly visual discipline, during the talk some basic information about eye-tracking and visual attention will be presented. On this basis, the potential of eye-tracking in research on the perceptions of underwater heritage will be discussed. Particular attention will be paid to the role of knowledge in the perception and understanding of artefacts. In addition to the literature review, examples of pilot eye-tracking studies on the perception of artefacts depicting underwater world by participants with various knowledge, will be presented. In conclusion, the opportunities and challenges related to eye tracking research in archeology, will be outlined.
Dr Hakan Öniz
Ancient Divers and Divers’ Weights in the Eastern Mediterranean
A better understanding of Mediterranean diving and divers in antiquity can be derived by analyzing and comparing the recovered artifacts which could be divers’ weights. Four archaeological objects found at the coasts of Antalya and some ancient sources put forward that ancient diver of the Mediterranean used divers’ weights. Traces of divers’ weights are very rare and there is a scarcity of iconographic evidence for them. Stone or lead diver weights from the coast of the Eastern Mediterranean provide evidence that divers have been active in the Mediterranean basin since the second half of the Iron Age. The first discovery was a stone tool found off the ancient Cilicia Region on the Alanya-Antalya coastline of Southern Turkey. The second find was a ring-shaped object made of lead discovered off the coast of the ancient Lycia region, the shores of Kemer-Antalya. These two objects were found as lone objects, neither associated with a shipwreck nor within a specific context. These objects were possibly used by ancient divers to reach the desired depths faster for some diving activities such as harvesting sponges and oysters. Two other ring-shaped objects were found again off the ancient Lycia region, one in Kaş and the other one on the Kekova coastline. Both objects are marble weights and have been found near shipwrecks. They were possibly used by divers to retrieve some sunken cargo for salvage operations. All these objects will be discussed with similar finds from different regions, ancient sources, and real-life tests.
Drt. Ceyda Oztosun
Ancient Lead Weights from The Turkish Mediterranean Coastline
Systematic archaeological underwater research has been carried out on the Antalya and Mersin coasts of Türkiye since 2012. In these studies, approximately 350 archaeological shipwrecks have been documented so far. Apart from these shipwrecks spanning from the Bronze Age to the Ottoman Period, many different archaeological remains have also been documented in the same range. Rarest finds in these archaeological objects are diver’s weights. The weights used by divers in ancient times were made of different stones or lead. Lead, as a heavy metal, has been used for different purposes since the 5th century BC. These are fishing net weights, fishing hook recovery weights, or paddle weights. All these lead materials, especially the lead diver weight found in 2022, will be discussed in the presentation.
Dr Emilio Rodríguez-Álvarez
Thinking as a Freediver. The Mindset, Taskscape, and Operational Chain of Apneists in Preindustrial Societies
Diving is a common activity in past and present coastal communities that, while characterized by a low visibility material record, has left behind numerous evidence of its importance in the economy and the identity of these societies. Previous studies have covered some aspects of these activities, establishing analogies between past and present communities, while also trying to relate historic writing sources to a realistic portrayal of freediving. Unfortunately, we still lack a common theoretical framework upon which to interpret the archaeological, ethnographic, and historical evidence.
Based on the premises of the more specific models of interpretation in archaeological theory, as opposed to the generalist models of inference that determine how we practice archaeology, the present study presents the first attempt to establishing an operational chain of freediving in preindustrial societies. This operational chain will be rooted on the establishment of common aims and techniques among freedivers across time and space, paying at first special attention to one of the earliest and main activities performed by these communities: the exploitation of coastal marine resources. It will also, and more importantly, constitute a theoretical framework upon which different archaeological datasets could be easily constrained and interpreted.
This theoretical tool will also allow for the study of divers as the complex community of practice that transcended the limits of human landscape to establish a taskscape that embraces the shore, the sea and the underwater depths as a single unified entity that requires of a specific knowledge to be properly interpreted in the archaeological, anthropological and historical records. By doing so, it will be possible for non-maritime experts to easily analyze and interpret many artifacts that, while belonging or representing freediving in past, have been mislabeled and misinterpreted, making very difficult the retrieval of this information in legacy datasets.
Dr Andrew John Shapland
Underwater encounters in Bronze Age Crete
Depictions of marine animals are frequent in Bronze Age Crete. During the palatial period (1900 BCE – 1350 BCE) shells, fish and octopuses are shown in clearly underwater environments. This paper will suggest that these depictions capture the moment of encounter between human and animal, and so provide indirect evidence for the importance of diving in this period. One reason for the significance of diving was economic, in order to gather marine resources. This is demonstrated by zooarchaeological remains, particularly marine gastropods such as triton and purple shells. At the same time diving is an inherently risky activity and so would have required skill and bravery on the part of its human participants. Although diving is not explicitly depicted, it will be suggested that it was a socially-charged and gendered activity which had a similar significance to pursuits such as hunting, fighting and bull-leaping.
Camilla Tettamanti et alii
Physiology and Forensic Considerations in Freediving
The composition of atmospheric air comprises 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and trace amounts of rare gases such as helium, argon, and neon. Carbon dioxide (CO2) constitutes a minimal fraction (0.03%). Conversely, the composition of air within pulmonary alveoli differs, with a constant nitrogen percentage but reduced oxygen levels to 15.4% and elevated CO2 concentrations reaching 5.6%. This divergence is due to gas exchange processes occurring in the pulmonary alveoli, where oxygen is absorbed into the bloodstream, and CO2, a byproduct of cellular metabolism, is released. Normal respiratory mechanics sustain continuous alveolar air exchange.
During apnea, alveolar air exchange ceases, resulting in a gradual decline in oxygen levels and an increase in CO2 concentration. Apnea’s duration is primarily constrained by two pivotal factors: hypoxia and hypercapnia. When oxygen levels in alveolar air and subsequently in the blood fall below 10%, metabolic functions become insufficient, leading to hypoxia. The brain, particularly sensitive to hypoxia, ceases to function, resulting in unconsciousness (syncopes). Prolonged hypoxia can lead to severe brain damage or even death. In contrast, increasing CO2 concentrations up to 7% evoke sensations of “air hunger,” prompting contractions of respiratory muscles, particularly the diaphragm. Beyond 8% CO2 concentration, cardiac function is compromised, with diaphragmatic contractions diminishing. At levels of 10-11%, consciousness is lost, followed by the shutdown of respiratory centers (respiratory paralysis), cardiac arrest, and death.
Notably, the progressive decrease in oxygen concentration remains imperceptible to the body until syncope occurs, unlike the early warning signs of hypercapnia, which include diaphragmatic contractions. Several complementary factors also affect apnea duration, including vital capacity, physical exertion, environmental conditions, psychological state, depth, and hyperventilation.
In freediving, multiple physiological adaptations occur. Both the cardiovascular and respiratory systems undergo modifications. Diving apnea triggers a reduction in heart rate, commencing upon facial immersion in water. Bradycardia serves to diminish oxygen consumption, benefiting organs highly susceptible to hypoxia. Another adaptation is the “blood shift” mechanism, preventing lung collapse under increasing pressure by shifting blood from the periphery to the lungs. Oxygen consumption rises during the dive due to heightened physical and mental effort. However, greater partial pressure of oxygen at depth facilitates respiratory exchange. Paradoxically, this favorable phenomenon introduces the risk of syncope during ascent.
The most serious risk faced by freedivers is syncope, characterized by loss of consciousness, respiratory arrest, and, subsequently or simultaneously, cardiac arrest due to inadequate cerebral oxygenation. Syncope can be primary or secondary. Primary syncope occurs when blood oxygen levels dip below 10%, causing neural cell dysfunction, which, if oxygenation is not promptly restored, results in irreversible damage. Secondary syncope, known as hydrocution syncope, is influenced by temperature differences between the body and water, recent heavy meals, or fatigue, and is associated with a vagal reflex that slows heart rate. Primary syncope severity partly depends on whether hyperventilation preceded the dive; without prior hyperventilation, it is termed “dry” syncope, with no water inhalation. Hyperventilation-induced syncope occurs before diaphragmatic contractions, leading to “wet” syncope with lung flooding. In both types, circulating blood accumulates excess CO2 from cellular metabolism, causing cyanosis.
Freshwater wet syncope poses greater risk than its saltwater counterpart due to dilution effects on blood and plasma. Freshwater is less concentrated than blood, leading to substantial absorption through alveolar walls, reducing mineral salt concentration and adversely affecting heart function. Conversely, saltwater extracts plasma from capillaries, causing acute pulmonary edema, hypovolemia, and progressive cardiac dysfunction. Characteristic signs in drowned individuals include ashen skin, cyanosis, frothy discharge from the mouth or nose, injuries from underwater or marine fauna, and water in the stomach.
In cases where remains are decomposed or skeletal, detecting drowning signs can be challenging. Forensic analysis often relies on the “diatom test,” based on the presence of siliceous unicellular algae inhaled during drowning. The test involves the rupture of pulmonary alveoli during drowning, enabling saltwater entry into the bloodstream and distribution throughout the body, including the “closed system” of bone marrow. Other signs observable in skeletal remains may include temporal muscle hematoma and the “pink teeth” phenomenon. Freedivers are also susceptible to middle ear barotrauma when pressure inside the middle ear cavity fails to balance with atmospheric pressure, often exacerbated by rapid descent or obstructed Eustachian canals.
Skeletal remains pose a significant challenge in forensic pathology (and in forensic anthropology), particularly when it comes to determining the cause of death. This challenge becomes even more pronounced when dealing with ancient skeletal remains submerged in water. However, by meticulously collecting samples and evidence, is possible to aid the reconstruction process and glean a wealth of valuable information. Interpreting chemical and biological analyses can provide valuable tools for comprehending both the cause of death and the life circumstances of the individual in question.
Dr Mari Yamasaki
The sea with its alien fauna and invisible dangers has always captured the human imagination. Before the introduction of modern diving equipment people could grasp only a fraction of the watery environment they were immersed in. Nevertheless, this did not stop them from conceptualizing and imagining the underwater space, and reproduce their perception of it. The most salient example is represented by the marine scenes on the interior of some Minoan funerary larnakes. I argue that these scenes functioned as a way to put the “sea in a box”, to replicate, at least in part, the experience of being immersed into the sea. This constitutes the starting point to re-evaluate other Eastern Mediterranean practices of bodily immersion in basins, larnakes and other “contained seas” from a cognitive and sensorial perspective. This allows to advance some consideration on the conceptualization of underwater spatiality and its relation to freediving.